Writing Guides
Displaying Data
Results and data can be presented in a paper in two ways. Authors can explain the results of an experiment or inquiry through text, or they can display the results in a table or figure. When the results are in the form of data, it is often more efficient to display them in a table or figure. The advantage of a table or figure is that a large amount of information can be displayed in a format that is easier to comprehend.
Do not do both. Do not explain the results in text and display a table or figure. If you use a table or figure, refer to it, discuss the highlights, but do not repeat all of the information again.
A table is used for numerical values or textual information, and is arranged in rows and columns. A figure can be anything from a chart or graph to a photograph or drawing.
When using tables or figures in a paper, there are guidelines on how to label, number, and format them. The information presented here is an overview, and for a more specific and detailed guide refer to the sixth edition of the APA Publication Manual, chapter 5.
General Guidelines
Data can be presented for a variety of reasons, such as explanation, communication, calculation, storage, or visual enhancement. The most common reason, however, is communication because a researcher usually wants to communicate the meaning of the data. Here are some general rules to keep in mind:
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Number all tables and figures in the same order in which they are mentioned in text and refer to them by their number, not "the table above" or "the table on page two". Use Arabic numerals, not letters. If you have one table and one figure, they should be labeled Table 1 and Figure 1. If you include additional tables or figure in an appendix, they should be labeled with the letter of the appendix and an Arabic numeral: Figure B3 is the third figure in Appendix B.
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Labels should be placed next to the element that they are labeling.
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Use fonts that are large enough to read easily.
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All of the information needed to understand the table or figure should be included in the table or figure. Use labels and table notes to accomplish this.
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Avoid unusual or non-standard abbreviations.
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Avoid decorative elements (such as shading, unusual font styles, colors, borders, etc.) if they do not add necessary content or meaning.
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Do not reproduce a table or figure from another source without written permission. If you do reproduce a table or figure, give credit in the caption to the author or copyright holder. For more information on permission to reproduce data displays, see section 5.06 of the sixth edition of the APA Publication Manual.
Tables
Most tables are created using the table feature of the word processing program in which the text is written. When putting a table together, consider what data is necessary for readers to understand the discussion, and what data is needed to provide a sufficient understanding of the analyses conducted. For more information on data and what a "sufficient understanding" is, see section 4.44 of the sixth edition of the APA Publication Manual. Finally, every table needs a title, and it should be clear and explanatory.
Tables have several basic components: the table number, table title, table body, cells, column heads, stub head, stub column, and table notes.
Table Number X
Table Title________________________________________
Stub Head Column Head Column Head
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x
______________________________________________
Table Note: Use this space for general notes on a table
The column to the farthest left in a table is the stub column. The stub column lists the major independent or predictor variables. A cell is the point of intersection between a row and a column, represented in the example table by an x. The rows of cells, which contain data, comprise the table body.
Table 1
Temperature Ranges and Averages for Narnia, January through June____________________
Month Low Temperature High Temperature Average______________
January 2 34 16
February 4 26 14
March 12 41 28
April 19 52 43
May 34 68 54
June______________ 47 __________________75_____________61_______________
Totals______________19.6__________________49.3____________ 36_______________
Note: All temperatures are in degrees Fahrenheit.
Additional table elements are the column spanner, table spanner, decked heads, or different types of table notes. A column spanner is a heading that identifies more than one column, vs. a column heading, which can only identify one column. A table spanner is a heading that covers the entire table body. Decked heads are stacked headings, done to avoid word repetition. In Table 2, the column spanner and the column headings are decked, allowing the column headings to use less words and have less space in-between the columns than in Table 1. The column headings Low and High are better than Low Temperature and High Temperature, as in Table 1. It is better to have briefly worded column headings. Try not to have more than two levels of decked heads.
Table X
______________________________________ Table Title___________________________
Column spanner _Column spanner__
Stub head Column head Column head Column head Column head
Table spanner
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
__________________________________________________________________________
Table 2
Temperature Ranges and Averages for Narnia, January Through June, Years One and Two___
Temperature range__
Month Low High Average_______________________________
Year one
January 2 34 16
February 4 26 14
March 12 41 28
April 19 52 43
May 34 68 54
June______________ 47 _____75________ 61________________________________
Totals______________19.6_____49.3_________36________________________________
Year two
January 2 4 3a
February 3 25 10
March 8 41 18
April 18 52 33
May 29 68 48
June______________ 45* ____72_____ ___57_______________________________
Totals______________17.5______47.3_______29.6______________________________
Headings always identify the information below them. In the stub column, if there is subordinate information, indent within the column rather than creating a new column.
With all headings, only the first letter of the first word should be capitalized. Unless they are referring to a group, stub heads, column heads, and column spanners should be singular. Table spanners, however, can be plural.
With cells, if there is no information you should either leave the cell empty or insert a dash. Leave the cell empty if there is no information because the data are not applicable. Insert a dash if there is no information because data were not gathered or reported. Explain the dash in a general note underneath the table.
Table notes
Tables can have three kinds of table notes. General notes, specific notes, or probability notes. A general note qualifies, explains, or gives information about the table as a whole. A specific note refers to a column, row, or cell within the table. A probability note refers to p values. For more information about p values and probability notes, see section 5.16 of the sixth edition of the APA Publication Manual.
For examples of different types of tables and their specific uses, refer to the examples in section 5.18 of the sixth edition of the APA Publication Manual. In section 5.19 there is a checklist for using tables. It reminds authors to consider whether or not the table is necessary, if every column has a column head, if the table is referred to in text, etc.
Figures
Figures can be a graph, chart, map, drawing, or photograph. A chart displays non-quantitative information whereas a graph usually shows the relationship between two quantitative indices. A chart may show the flow of something through a process, for example, and a graph may show the relationship between temperatures during the summer and the number of homicides.
Figures need to be easy to read, clear, and free from unnecessary detail. Figures should add to the information in the text, not duplicate it, and they should not have unnecessary information. They should use an easy to read font that is not too small.
When deciding on whether or not use a figure, keep the information value in mind. What information does the figure convey? Is there a better way to convey that information, or is a figure the best way? As with tables, figures should be understandable on their own. Because of this, label figures clearly and concisely. If necessary, use a legend to explain the figure.
A caption is used to explain a figure, whereas a legend is used to explain symbols that are used within the figure. Captions should be positioned below a figure, but legends should be placed within the figure. Use the caption as a title for the figure, keeping it brief and concise. If necessary, add information after the caption (usually a short phrase punctuated with a period) to explain the figure. Do not explain the figure in the text of the paper. Readers should be able to understand the figure fully based on the figure alone.
For more information on figures and how to present them, including examples of figures, refer to sections 5.20 through 5.25 of the sixth edition of the APA Publication Manual.