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Consider Purpose and Audience

Understanding the purpose and audience of a source will help you determine whether it might be useful for your research project. A general reference source in a library serves a much different purpose than an editorial in a newspaper, an advertisement in a magazine, or a Web site that provides information about a particular product or service. Similarly, a source written for an audience of experts in a particular field is likely to contain different kinds of information than one written for a general audience. Sources written for technical experts are likely to assume readers possess a great deal of background knowledge about the topic. These sources typically skip general treatments of the topic in favor of detailed discussions tailored to experts. In contrast, sources written for general audiences usually provide background information for readers.

Learn About the Author

Writers use sources for a variety of purposes: to support a point, to illustrate a range of positions on an issue, and to show that they are not alone in their opinions, among others. With rare exceptions (such as when you are illustrating divergent opinions), any author you cite should be reliable and trustworthy. To learn about an author, ask yourself the following questions:

• Who is the author, and what are his or her credentials?
• Is the author a recognized authority?
• With what institutions or organizations is the author affiliated?
• In what ways does the author’s biases affect the source?
• What if a source doesn’t identify its author?

A Note About Field Sources: If you are conducting field research, you can sometimes select the "authors" of your information. This is particularly true with interviews, where you can hand pick the person who will be the "author" of your interview. You can also select the "authors" of questionnaires and observations, although you can usually do so only in a general sense, such as choosing to distribute a questionnaire to a particular group of people or choosing to observe a particular setting.

Who is the Author?

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To learn more about an author, see whether any credentials are given in the introduction or preface to a book or in a biographical note at the beginning or end of a book or article. If you are still in doubt, you might check whether the author is listed in your library’s catalog or whether he or she is included in Who's Who, Contemporary Authors, or specialized reference works such as American Men and Women of Science. Inclusion in reference works such as these doesn't guarantee absolute trustworthiness, but you may be able to get an idea of the author's background.

Is the Author a Recognized Authority?

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Ultimately, the best measure of someone's authority is whether his or her work meets the critical demands of other authorities. If your instructor knows the field, you might ask him or her about the author, or there might be someone else on campus who can answer your questions.

If your source is a weekly newsmagazine like Time, Newsweek, or U.S. News & World Report, the writer of an article is likely to be a reporter, not always a famous name, and probably not a world-renowned authority. Such magazines do, however, feature some articles by experts, and all such magazines have a good reputation for checking their facts carefully and presenting a range of opinions. Be aware, however, that some magazines select facts to mirror the opinions of their editors.

If you get information from the World Wide Web, a newsgroup, or certain electronic databases, it can be difficult to learn about an author's credentials. If no credentials are provided, consider sending electronic mail to the author asking about his or her credentials. If you can't find out anything about the author, carefully consider whether it’s best to use the information.

What are the Author's Affiliations?

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You would probably expect to find differences in opinion among leaders of various political parties or particular types of organizations. An editorial about preserving wetlands written by the president of the Sierra Club, for instance, might take a different stance than one written by a lobbyist for a real estate organization. Although it’s rare to find a complete listing of an author’s affiliations, many print and online periodicals provide brief descriptions of the author of an article or column. Check these descriptions for clues about an author’s affiliations.

If you’re uncertain about an author’s affiliations, and would like to learn more about them, consider searching for the author on the World Wide Web. An increasing number of authors have created home pages on which they list information about themselves, such as their educational background, professional experience, and interests. To read about how to conduct a search, visit our unit on Conducting Electronic Searches.

What are the Author's Biases?

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Every author holds opinions that affect his or her discussion of an issue, opinions that you as a reader must try to recognize and understand. Even the most seemingly factual report, such as an encyclopedia article, is necessarily filled with judgments, often unstated. These judgments reflect an author’s bias, or preference for a particular side of an issue.

As you evaluate a source, consider whether its author's bias affects the presentation of information and opinions in a source. Instead, ask whether this bias has resulted in a source that treats one side of an issue more favorably than another. To explore for bias, ask where the author is coming from. Where are his or her allegiances? Is the bias hidden or stated? Do you need to look for a balancing viewpoint or approach?

Just because the author has a strong bias does not mean that everything he or she has written is invalid. However, you will be better prepared to fend off attacks from those who want to challenge your analysis or argument if you recognize such biases early on.

What if a Source Doesn’t Identify its Author?

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If no author is given, as is sometimes the case with newspaper articles and with sites on the World Wide Web, try to identify the sponsoring organization or publisher. If you're working with a print source that doesn't list an author, consider the nature of the publication: is it an article in a nationally respected newspaper or in a supermarket tabloid? Is it a brochure or pamphlet published by a organization recognized as a leader in its field? On a Web site, look for contact information for the organization or publisher. Sometimes you'll find contact information or a disclaimer on the home page or an "about this site" page.

Learn About the Publisher

Experienced researchers know that the publisher of a source – the person, organization, government agency, or corporation that prints or electronically distributes a source – plays an important role in shaping its content. Like authors, publishers usually have a bias about a particular topic or issue. A corporate publisher, such as Microsoft, which publishes information on one of the largest sites on the World Wide Web, is likely to present its products and services more favorably than those of its competitors. Similarly, political organizations, such as the Democratic Party or the National Rifle Association, are likely to publish sources that contain information that support policies favored by the organization.

As you evaluate a source, consider its publisher. If you are reading a Web site, is it a site created for particular commercial purposes, such as selling a product or service? Is it a site devoted to a particular political cause or causes? Is it a site developed by a particular organization or government agency? If you are reading a newsgroup or mailing list, is it a general interest group or one devoted to a particular cause? If you are reading a book, what does the name of the publisher tell you about the intended audience? Is this publisher known for publishing works in a specific field? with a specific political agenda? If you are reading a periodical, does it have a predictable point of view? The Nation, a magazine of commentary from a left-leaning political point of view, is likely to give you a different picture of the world from that found in the National Review, edited by conservative William F. Buckley, Jr.

To read more about evaluating a publisher, click on the items below:

• Strategies for Evaluating the General Outlook of a Web Site
• Strategies for Evaluating the General Outlook of Periodical

Strategies for Evaluating the General Outlook of a Web Site

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More than any other kinds of sources, information on Web sites and periodicals is likely to reflect a publisher's bias. To learn about the publisher of a Web site, try to locate a disclaimer. Look as well for a links to "site information" or "about this site." If you are visiting a site sponsored by an organization or agency, find out whether a mission statement is provided. Finally, consider related sites on the Internet that the Web site links to. Since sites tend to link to other sites that they find useful or that generally agree with their particular outlook, following these links can help give you an idea of the general outlook of a Web site.

Strategies for Evaluating the General Outlook of a Periodical

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To learn more about the general outlook of a periodical, take a moment to skim through it, noting the following.

• Editorials. In these, the editors, making no pretense of being impartial, set forth their views. In most magazines, editorials will be in a front section and may not even be signed, since the names of the editors are on the masthead, near the table of contents. If you can find an editorial commenting on a familiar issue, you can discover the bias of the magazine's editors.
• Featured columnists. Usually the job of a columnist depends on his or her voicing opinions congenial to the magazine's editors and publishers. But this test isn't foolproof. Sometimes a dissenting columnist is hired to lend variety.
• Lead stories. The lead story is usually the one placed most prominently in the issue; the cover of a magazine often reflects the lead story. If you don't have time to read the whole thing, skim the last paragraph, in which the writer often declares the overall message.
• Letters to the editor. You can often deduce the level of schooling and intelligence of the letter writers, and this will tell you something about the magazine's readers. Political positions aren't always easy to decipher from letters to the editor since many magazines, such as Time, strive to offer space to a diversity of opinions.
• Advertisements. Ads are usually a good guide to a magazine's audience. To whom are its editors trying to appeal? The many ads for office copiers, delivery services, hotels, and corporations in Newsweek, for instance, tell you that the magazine is trying to appeal to well-educated professionals.

Consider the Evidence

The evidence in a source – the information, opinions, and ideas – can tell you a great deal about its reliability and usefulness for your research project. As you evaluate a source, consider whether evidence is carefully put together, complete, and up to date. Consider the thesis, if any, and whether it is supported by credible evidence. Ask whether the argument or analysis seems convincing. If the source seems slipshod or leaves you with several important questions unanswered, you might do better to look for another source.

To evaluate the evidence in a source, ask yourself the following questions:

• What is the author’s main point?
• How much and what kind of evidence supports the main point?
• How persuasive is the evidence?
• Can you offer counterarguments or refutations of the evidence?
• Can you detect any questionable logic or fallacious reasoning?

A Note on Considering Evidence in Field Sources: If you are working with a field source, ask yourself similar questions about the evidence that is provided and the credibility of the source. If you are interviewing someone or attending a public lecture, are consistent responses provided to questions? Does the interviewee or speaker provide evidence to support or corroborate claims? If you are analyzing responses to a questionnaire, does it appear that respondents have answered your questions consistently, seriously, and honestly? If you are observing a particular event or setting, try to determine whether people are aware that they are being observed. Often, knowing that they are being observed can change people's behavior.

Consider Publication Date

In most cases, you should strive to use the most current sources possible. In most fields, new information and discoveries come out every year. The evidence in a source, as a result, needs to be up to date, or at least still of importance. If you cited five-year-old procedures for treating AIDS as if they were still used, for example, you'd be wrong. Use older materials only when their value has held up over time or if your research focuses on a particular period earlier than the recent past.

Consider a Source's Role in Your Research

Why use one source rather than another? Is the information it contains useful for your purposes as a writer? Does the source contain strong quotations or hard facts that would be effective in your final paper? Is it relevant, in terms of the subject matter and in the way it tackles it? For some papers it may be appropriate to use an article in a popular magazine, and for others you may need to cite the research findings published in the scholarly journal on which the magazine article was based. Remember that you're looking for the best possible sources for your particular paper. Always ask yourself not only "Will this do?" but "Would something else be better?"

Consider, as well, how using this source in your paper will affect the future direction of your research. Does it contain information that challenges your assumptions about the topic? Does it present any strong evidence against your position for which you need to find counterevidence? Does it suggest a new direction that might be more interesting to pursue? Your research project will probably grow and change as you learn more about it. It's wise to check in with yourself now and again to make sure you have a clear direction — whether it's the same old direction or a completely new one.

Finally, consider whether a source is directly relevant to your research question. It's surprisingly easy to get sidetracked by a persuasive book, article, or Web site on a topic that is only slightly connected to the direction of your research.

Consider Primary and Secondary Sources

A primary source is a firsthand account written by an eyewitness or a participant. It contains raw data and immediate impressions. A secondary source is an analysis of the information contained in one or more primary sources. For example, primary sources for a large fire caused by a gas leak would include the statements of victims and witnesses, the article written by a journalist who was at the scene, and the report of the fire chief in charge of putting out the blaze. If another journalist used the first journalist's article as background for a story on industrial accidents, or if a historian used any of these sources in a book on urban life in the twentieth century, these would be secondary sources.

For most research papers, you will need to use both primary and secondary sources. Secondary sources aren't necessarily less trustworthy just because they are not firsthand reports. Eyewitnesses can be prejudiced, self-serving, or simply unable to know as much as a later writer who has synthesized many eyewitness accounts. In writing a history paper on the attitudes of American social workers toward World War I, you might quote a primary source: Jane Addams, founder of Chicago's Hull House, who was a pacifist. If you relied only on Addams's words, though, you might get the idea that social workers were unanimously opposed to the war effort. To put Addams's views into perspective, you'd also need secondary sources, which would show that most of her peers did not want to identify with her unpopular pacifism and publicly disagreed with her.

If, however, you find yourself repeatedly citing a fact or authority as it is quoted in someone else's analysis, you might be wise to go to the primary source of the information itself. For example, statistics are often used by those arguing both sides of an issue — often it's only the interpretation that differs. You might find it useful to go back to the original research (the publication of which is a primary source) to learn where the facts end and the interpretation begins.

Consider the Level of Specialization

Some sources are considered to be general, that is, written for an audience of nonspecialists. Newspapers and popular magazines typically provide general information about a topic or issue. In contrast, other sources are highly specialized, that is, written for an audience of specialists, such as microbiologists, mortgage bankers, or auto mechanics.

General sources can be helpful as you begin your research, but later in the project you may need the authority or currentness of more specialized sources. On the other hand, keep in mind that extremely specialized works on your topic may be too difficult for your audience to understand easily.

Consider the Medium in Which a Source is Published

As a researcher, you may find yourself working with print sources, electronic sources, and field sources. To view a list of questions you should ask about each type of resource, click on the items below:

• Questions to ask about Print Sources
• Questions to ask about Electronic Sources
• Questions to ask about Field Sources

Questions to Ask about Print Sources

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• Is the source relevant to your research project? Is it related to your argumentative claim? For a book, does the table of contents suggest that it might be relevant? For an article, is there an abstract that summarizes the contents?
• What is the purpose of the publication? Is it to sell a product or service? Is it to inform? Is it to publish new research? Is it to shape opinion about a particular issue or cause?
• Who is the author of your source? Is information provided about the author's credentials and profession? Is the author an expert on the topic? Does the author's stance on the topic appear to influence information in the source?
• What can you tell about the publisher? Is the publisher a nationally respected newspaper, such as the New York Times, the Washington Post, or Newsweek? Is the publisher a major publishing corporation, such as Bedford/St. Martins or Houghton Mifflin? Is the source found in an academic or professional journal, such as College English or the New England Journal of Medicine?
• Are sources of information documented? Is the information consistent with the information found in other print, electronic, or field sources?
• How specialized is the information in the source? Does the source provide a broad overview of an issue? Does it focus on a narrow topic using highly specialized jargon? Will your audience be able to understand key terms from the source? Do you understand the key ideas in the source?
• What is the date of publication? Is the information contained in the document up to date? Is the topic one that needs to be up to date?

Questions to Ask about Electronic Sources

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• Is the source relevant to your research project? Is it related to your argumentative claim?
• Who is the author of your source? If it is a Web page, is any information provided about the author? Is an electronic mail address provided so that you can contact the author? If it is a post to a newsgroup or mailing list, what can you tell from the author's electronic mail address and signature file, if one is provided?
• Are the sources of information provided on the Web site, newsgroup, or mailing list provided? Is the information consistent with the information found in print sources, other Web sites, newsgroups, or mailing lists?
• If you're evaluating a Web site that is sponsored by an organization, government agency, or corporation, what do you know about the sponsor? Is a bias clearly evident in the material provided on the site? Is this a commercial site that is trying to sell a product or service? Is this a site that pushes a particular issue or political agenda?
• If you are evaluating posts on a newsgroup or mailing list, what do you know about the purpose of the newsgroup or list? Is a FAQ (frequently asked questions) file available? Is it clear from the posts whether there is a general bias among members of the newsgroup or list?
• How specialized is the information in the source? Does the source provide a broad overview of an issue? Does it focus on a narrow topic using highly specialized jargon? Will your audience be able to understand key terms from the source? Do you understand the key ideas in the source?
• Can you tell when a Web site was published? Can you determine whether it has been updated recently? Is the information published on the site current or out of date?
• if you are visiting a Web site, how effectively is the site designed? How "friendly" is it? Are its links,if any, helpful? What effects todesign, visuals, and/or soudn have on the message?

Questions to Ask about Field Sources

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• Does your source seem biased or prejudiced? If so, is this bias or prejudice so strong that you have to discount some of the information?
• Have you compared different people's opinions or accounts? In general, the more viewpoints, the better.
• Does the information from your source agree with published accounts in print or Internet sources? If not, can you think of a good reason why this would be so?
• Is any of your evidence hearsay, one person telling you the thoughts of another or telling you about comments or actions that he or she hasn't witnessed? If so, can you support or discount your source's view by comparing it with other evidence?
• If an interviewee or questionnaire respondent has told you about past events, has time possibly distorted his or her memory?
• If you have tried to question a random sampling of people, do you feel that they are truly representative? If you have tried to question everyone in a group, have you been thorough enough?
• Have you identified the time, place, and participants in your field research?
• Do you have access to the source? Can you find the time to visit or contact the source to obtain the information you are seeking?
• Have you obtained permission to use information from someone you've interviewed, surveyed, or observed? Have you asked them whether you can use their names in your paper or whether they would prefer that you protect their confidentiality?